Sauropodomorphs

THE SAUROPODOMORPHA ("lizard-feet forms.")

were herbivorous, usually quadrupedal (four-footed)

dinosaurs. A clade within Saurischia, they were 

characterized by small heads, bulky bodies, and

long necks and tails. Sauropodomorphs have

often been split into two groups: prosauropods

and sauropods. Prosauropods lived from Late

Triassic to Early Jurassic times (225-180 million years ago) and

included beats such as the small Anchisaurus and one of the first

very large dinosaurs, Plateosaurus. By Middle Jurassic times (about

165 million years ago), sauropods had replaced prosauropods and

spread worldwide. They included the heaviest and longest land animals

ever, such as Diplodocus and Brachiosaurus. 

Brachiosaurus

Sauropods persisted to the 

end of the Cretaceous period (65 million years ago). Many of these

huge bulk and powerful tails, which they could use to lash out at

attackers. Sauropodomorphs were the most common large

herbivores until Late Jurassic times (about 145 million years ago),

and appear to have survived in both southern and

northern continents until the end of the Cretaceous period.

Theropods

AN ENORMOUSLY SUCCESSFUL SUBGROUP of the Saurischia,

 the bipedal (two-footed) theropods (“beast feet”) emerged 

230 million years ago in Late Triassic times; the oldest known

Example comes from South America.

Fossil Skeleton of Archaeopteryx

Theropods spanned the age of

most dinosaurs (230-65 million years ago) and beyond, and included

most of the known predatory dinosaurs. The typical theropod had smallish

arms with sharp teeth; an S-shaped neck; long, muscular hind limbs;

and clawed, usually four-toed feet. Many theropods may have been

warm-blooded; most were exclusively carnivorous. Theropods ranged

from Tyrannosaurus and Baryonyx. The group also included 

ostrich-like omnivorous and herbivores with toothless breaks,

such as Struthiomimus and Gallimimus. Birds are dinosaurs and evolved

from within a group of tetanuran theropods called maniraptorans.

Archaeopteryx, small and feathered, was the first known bird and lived

Alongside other Dinosaurs.

The Dinosaurs (Important Facts) {Part-14}

THE DINOSAURS WERE A LARGE GROUP of reptiles that were the dominant land vertebrates (animals with backbones) for most of the Mesozoic era (245-65 million years ago).

Dinosaurs

They appeared some 230 million years ago and were distinguished from other scaly, egg-laying reptiles by an important feature dinosaurs had an erect limb stance. This enabled them to keep their bodies well above the ground, unlike the sprawling and semi-sprawling stance of other reptiles. The head of the dinosaurs' femur (thigh-bone) fitted into a socket in its pelvis (hip-bone), producing efficient and mobile locomotion. Dinosaurs are categorized into two groups according to the structure of their pelvis: Saurischian (Lizard-hipped) and Ornithischian (Bird-hipped) dinosaurs.

Types of Dinosaurs

In the case of most Saurischians, the pubis (part of pelvis) jutted forward, while in Ornithischians it slanted back, parallel to the ischium (another part of the pelvis). Dinosaurs ranged in size from smaller than a domestic cat to the biggest land animals ever known. The Dinosauria were the most successful land vertebrates ever, and survived for 165 million years, until most became extinct 65 million years ago.

Dinosauria

Message for Upcoming World

Arecibo Message was written by Dr. Frank Drake and Carl Sagan which was blasted towards the

Arecibo Message

M13 star cluster in 1974. It's composed of semi prime no. of binary digits conveying some info about us and it should reach the center of M13 cluster in about 25,000 years at which point something intelligent lives there and detects it. They can respond and there response will return to us in another 25,000 years later.

M 13

But Earth has also been broadcasting it's radio and Television signals into space. Currently it is about 200 light years in diameter, compared to the Milky Way it's about that big Aliens within that bubble could tune in and listen to programs we sent out through our aerowaves but these signals thin out the bubble expands across very large distance they may be essentially impossible to tune into. May be a physical Time Capsule would be more permanent but it can't be buried on earth, if earth is about to ravage, a Time Capsule in orbit might be smart like LAGEOS I,

LAGEOS I

a satellite put into orbit in 1976, that allows for very precise laser measurement of positions on earth but also contains a Plaque, designed by Carl Sagan upon which is written from number 1 to 10 in binary and the arrangement of the earth's continent 250 million years ago.

Warmhole -Space Talks#7

A highly speculative idea of modern astrophysics, warmholes are theoretical possibilities allowed within the mathematical framework of Einstein's general theory of relativity. A warmhole is a short-lived portal, lasting only a brief moment, that joints two black holes in different locations.

Warmhole

Warmholes could connect two points in the present-day universe or, perhaps, in different times. In warmhole theory, matter falling into a black hole at one point should emerge through a proposed "White Hole"-- the reverse of a black hole-- at the other end (Travelers could go from point to point in time or space through warmholes, as imagined here in the picture).
Neither wormholes nor any evidence of them has yet observed. Scientists cannot determine how they would be created, although astrophysics such as Hawking continue to work on this intriguing notion.

The Zodiac -Space Talks#6

The Zodiac is a band of constellations that extends roughly nine degrees on each side of the ecliptic, the sun's apparent yearly path through our sky.

Constellations of the Zodiac

Ancient Greek astronomers divided the zodiac into 12 parts. Over time, Earth's slight rotational wobble has shifted the ecliptic by more than 30 degrees against the backdrop of stars. The 18-degree-wide now also includes parts of Cetus (the Whale) and Orion (the Hunter).
Constellations seen from the Northern Hemisphere became standardized through the observations of ancient Western and Middle Eastern cultures. Those of the Southern Sky were named mostly by European ocean voyagers.

Constellations -Space Talks#5

Stars seem to move across the sky through the night, but that movement is due to Earth's rotation. As Earth spins on its axis, objects appear to rise in the east and set in the west. In the Northern Hemisphere, some stars never appear to  set, called Circumpolar Stars, they circle at a point projected in the sky above the Northern Pole near Polaris, the Pole Star. A corresponding situation exists above the South Pole near the Star Sigma Octantis.

Constellations

In ancient cultures, sky-watching played an important role in navigation, agriculture, religion and even entertainment. Those who observed the heavens connected stars to form patterns that related to the heroes, gods and legends of their culture-- what we refer to today as Contellations.

Most cultures named constellations and attached cultural meaning to their patterns. Native American sky lore, for instance, often used constellations to teach moral lessons.

Today, the Western world acknowledges the constellations that originated in Mesopotamia more than 5,000 years ago. Babylonian, Egyptian, and Greek astronomers also made contributions during the classical ages of their cultures.

In 1928 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) determined which constellations would be officially recognized. Of the 88 constellations on the IAU list, 48 were identified in ancient times with just the naked eye. The remaining 40 were added in more recent centuries.

Discovery of Big Bang -Space Talks# 4

The first scientific evidence for the Big Bang was found in 1929, when astronomers discovered that light from distant galaxies is rendered. This color change happens when objects are moving away from us, making light waves stretch out and change color. The more distant the galaxies are, the faster they rushing away. This shows that the whole Universe is expanding.

No charge in starlight

Light waves stretched

Big Bang afterglow:-

More evidence of the Big Bang came in the 1960s, when astronomers detected faint microwave radiation coming from every point in the sky. This mysterious energy is the faded remains of the intense burst of energy released in the Big Bang.

Microwave map of whole sky

Changing elements:-

For hundreds of millions of years, the Universe consisted almost entirely of hydrogen and helium- the very simplest chemical elements.
After stars appeared, new elements began to be made in the cores of dying stars. All the complex elements in our bodies were forged in dying stars this way.

Big Bounce theory:-
What caused the Big Bang? We may never know for sure, but some scientists have suggested that there may have been lots of big bangs, with the Universe expanding after each one and then shrinking again. This theory is called the Big Bounce because the process repeats itself.
 

Star death- Space Talks# 3

All stars eventually run out of fuel and die. Most fade away quietly, but the most massive stars self-destruct in a huge explosion that can outshine an entire galaxy.

Like Earth, stars generate the force of gravity which squeezes their hot core. The more matter a star has, the greater the force of gravity and the hotter and denser the core becomes. The way a star dies depends on how powerfully its core is squeezed by gravity.

Stars make heat and light by the process of nuclear fusion: hydrogen atoms in the core crash together to form helium, releasing energy. In small stars, when hydrogen in the core runs out, the stars light slowly fades. But in more massive stars, the core is so hot and dense that fusion can spread beyond it, changing the star's appearance. The most massive stars are eventually overwhelmed by their own gravity, which crushes them so violently that they collapse into a pinprick to a create a black hole.

Ways to die:-
Stars can die in four different ways, all of which are shown on these pages. Our Sun, a typical star, will follow the central path, but not yet - it has enough fuel to keep shinning for 5 billion years. When larger stars die, they turn hydrogen into heavier chemical elements such as carbon and oxygen, which are later recycled to form new stars and planets. All the atoms in your body were created this way.

Seeing the invisible- Space Talks# 2

Professional astronomers don't just use visible light to see the night sky. Their telescopes can also create images from wavelengths of light that our eyes cannot see, such as X-rays, radio waves and infrared rays. The images below all show kepler's Supernova - the wreckage left by a giant star that exploded in 1604.

X-ray image:- 

    X-ray image of Kepler's Supernova

This image of Kepler's Supernova is from the orbiting Chandra X-ray Observatory. It shows a cloud of incredibility hot gas that emits high-energy X-rays. 

Visible light image:-

Visible light image of Kepler's image

Very little of the object can be seen in visible light, even in this image from the Hubble Space Telescope. The bright areas are clumps of gas.

Infrared image:-

Infrared image of Kepler's image

Taken by the Spitzer Space Telescope, this infrared image shows dust clouds that were heated by a shock wave from the exploding star.

Combined image of Kepler's image

 Combining all three sources produces a complete image: a shell of supernova debris expanding into space at 2,000 km (1,240 miles) per second.

Living in Space- Space Talks# 1

Astronauts must adapt to a zero-gravity environment when weightlessly can be fun, it can also cause medical problems.
Space stations are cramped places with few luxuries. Astronauts eat ready-made meals that are either freeze-dried or served in pouches.
All water is recycled, including the water vapour from human breath.
Astronauts clean themselves with special shampoos and soaps that don't need water, and they use space toilets that suck away waste rather than flushing with water.

Effects on the Body:-

Spaceman

When the human body spends a long time in space, it changes. Without gravity pulling on the spine, the body gets about 5 cm ( 2 in ) taller. Body fluids that flow downwards on Earth build up in the head. This gives astronauts swollen faces and blocked noses, making food seem tasteless. When astronauts come back to Earth, the return of full gravity can make them feel extremely weak.

Space stations:-  

A space station is a crewed satellite - a kind of orbiting laboratory in which astronauts and scientists live and work. The USSR launched the first station, Salyut 1, in 1971.

Salyut 1 (USSR)

  The USA soon followed with Skylab, in 1973. Russia's Mir, in use from 1986 to 2001, was the most successful station until the USA, Russia, and more than 10 other countries joined forces to build the International Space Station, in orbit since 1998. China's own space station prototype, Tiangong-1, was launched in 2011.

Skylab (USA)

Mir (USSR)

Tiangong -1 (China)

 

International Space Station

Dazzling thing in the Universe {Part -5}

Artist Thierry Cohen mocked up what big cities would look like if all their lights were off and the sky above them could be seen fully, New York, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Tokyo, Los Angeles. 

New York

Los Angeles

Tokyo

Shanghai

It's beautiful and rare. In the 1990's during a black out in the city of Los Angeles, a number of residences actually called the Police, they were afraid of mysterious glowing clouds hovering above the city.

 They were seeing our galaxy for the first time in their lives.

At night artificial lights allow us to see what around us but we lose what's above us.

Taijitu

 The brightest place have the darkest, emptiest skies. There's Yin and Yang again. 

A Taijitu has actually been lurking in this in this series.

The brightest things in the Universe, quasars are caused by the darkest things in the Universe- Black Holes. The process that unshackles the most light is caused by the thing that best imprisons it.

Preparing Nanoparticles by Emulsification Diffusion Method

In this method, polymer is dissolved in measured amount of solvent (ethyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, propylene carbonate, methyl ethyl ketone. Organic phase is added into required amount of aqueous phase containing the stabiliser. After mutual saturation of organic and continuous phase, the mixture is emulsified with a high speed homogenizer. For full diffusion into the water phase, excess amount of water is added to the oil in water emulsion under magnetic stirring, leading to the nanoprecipitation of the polymer.

                Schematic illustration of the Emulsion Diffusion Method

Advantages of emulsion diffusion method:-

It offers high encapsulation efficiency, no need for homogenization, high batch to batch reproductibility, ease of scaling up, simplicity and narrow size distribution. 

Limitations of emulsion diffusion method:-

High volumes of water have to be eliminated from suspension, leakage of water soluble drug into saturated aqueous external phase during emulsification reducing encapsulation efficiency.

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